| Latest Economics NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 9th to 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||
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| 9th | 10th | 11th | 12th | ||||||||||||||||
| Class 9th Chapters | ||
|---|---|---|
| 1. The Story Of Village Palampur | 2. People As Resource | 3. Poverty As A Challenge |
| 4. Food Security In India | ||
Chapter 2 People As Resource
The chapter "People as Resource" explores the perspective of viewing a country's population not as a burden but as a potential **asset** for the economy. When investments are made in the population through **education, training, and medical care**, the population transforms into **human capital**.
**Human capital** represents the accumulated skills and productive knowledge possessed by the working people. Looking at the population from this perspective highlights its capacity to contribute to the creation of the Gross National Product (GNP).
Viewing population as a 'human resource' is the positive aspect often overlooked when focusing solely on the challenges of providing food, education, and healthcare to a large population. Further development of existing human resources through improved education and health leads to **human capital formation**. This process adds to the productive capacity of the country, similar to the formation of physical capital (machinery, buildings).
Investing in human capital (through education, training, and healthcare) yields returns, just like investing in physical capital. These returns can be seen directly in the form of **higher incomes** earned by more educated or better-trained individuals due to increased productivity. Additionally, healthier individuals are more productive. The benefits of a more educated and healthier population also spread indirectly throughout society, even to those who did not directly receive the education or healthcare.
Human capital is argued to be superior to other resources like land and physical capital because **human resources can utilise land and capital**, whereas land and capital cannot become useful on their own. While a large population has traditionally been seen as a liability in India, it can be transformed into a productive asset through strategic investment in human capital, such as spending on education and health for all, providing training in modern technology, and supporting scientific research.
The stories of Sakal and Vilas illustrate the impact of investment in human capital. Sakal, through his education and vocational training, acquired skills that led to a good job, higher productivity, and career advancement, contributing to the economy. Vilas, lacking education and healthcare, remained in low-income, unskilled work like his mother, highlighting the consequences of under-investment in human capital.
Picture 2.1 displays images of a doctor, teacher, engineer, and tailor. These professions represent different forms of human capital. Doctors provide healthcare, teachers impart knowledge, engineers design and build, and tailors create clothing. All contribute their skills and knowledge to the economy, making them valuable assets.
Picture 2.2 illustrates key moments in the stories of Sakal and Vilas. Sakal is shown studying and working with a computer, representing investment in education and skilled labour. Vilas is depicted selling fish and caring for his sick mother, symbolising traditional low-skill labour and the impact of lack of healthcare access and support.
Economic Activities By Men And Women
People engage in various activities to produce goods and services. These activities are broadly classified into three main sectors: primary, secondary, and tertiary.
The three sectors of economic activities are:
- **Primary Sector:** Includes activities directly related to the extraction and production of natural resources, such as agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry farming, mining, and quarrying.
- **Secondary Sector:** Concerned with the processing of raw materials into finished goods, primarily through manufacturing.
- **Tertiary Sector:** Provides support services to the primary and secondary sectors and directly to consumers. This includes trade, transport, communication, banking, education, health, tourism, various services, and insurance.
Activities in these sectors that result in the production of goods and services and add value to the national income are called **economic activities**. Economic activities are further categorised into two parts:
- **Market Activities:** Activities performed for pay or profit. These involve remuneration and include the production of goods or services for sale, including government services.
- **Non-market Activities:** Production primarily for **self-consumption**. This includes consuming and processing primary products produced by oneself and own-account production of fixed assets.
Picture 2.3 displays various economic activities: farming (Primary), manufacturing (Secondary), teaching (Tertiary/Service), and fishing (Primary). These images help classify different types of work into the three main sectors of the economy.
There is a traditional **division of labour between men and women**, often influenced by historical and cultural reasons, especially within families. Women commonly perform domestic chores and caregiving within the home, while men often engage in work outside the home, such as farming or other jobs, to earn money for the family. In the story of Sakal, his mother Sheela performs all household duties, for which she is not paid, and her work is not included in the national income calculation. Sakal's father Buta earns money from farming.
Women are paid for their work when they participate in the **labour market**, as seen in the story of Vilas, whose mother Geeta earned income by selling fish. The earnings of women in the labour market, like those of men, are significantly determined by their **education and skills**.
However, a majority of women in the labour market have limited education and low skill levels, leading to **lower pay compared to men**. Many women work in the unorganised sector, where job security is minimal, legal protection is weak, income is irregular and low, and basic facilities like maternity leave, childcare, and social security are often absent. In contrast, women with higher education and skills are more likely to be employed in the organised sector, where they are paid comparably to men and can access administrative and skilled scientific/technological roles.
Examples of economic activities vs. non-economic activities based on provided descriptions:
- Vilas sells fish in the village market: **Economic Activity** (Market Activity - performed for income/profit).
- Vilas cooks food for his family: **Non-economic Activity** (Production for self-consumption/domestic purpose).
- Sakal works in the private firm: **Economic Activity** (Market Activity - performed for salary).
- Sakal looks after his younger brother and sister: **Non-economic Activity** (Caregiving/domestic purpose - not for pay or profit).
Quality Of Population
The **quality of a population** is a key determinant of a country's growth rate. It is measured by factors such as the **literacy rate**, the **health status** of individuals (indicated by life expectancy), and the level of **skill formation** acquired by the people. A population that is literate and healthy is considered a valuable asset for the economy, contributing positively to productivity and development.
Education
**Education** is a critical input for human capital formation and significantly contributes to the growth of individuals and society. Sakal's story demonstrates how education in early life leads to better job opportunities and higher earnings later. Education opens up new horizons, provides aspirations, and develops life values. Beyond individual benefits, education enhances national income, enriches cultural richness, and improves the efficiency of governance.
Recognising the importance of education, India has made provisions for providing **universal access, retention, and quality in elementary education**, with a focus on girls' education. Initiatives include setting up Navodaya Vidyalayas (pace-setting schools) in each district and developing vocational streams for high school students to acquire job-related knowledge and skills.
Government expenditure on education has increased significantly over the years, although its percentage of GDP has remained around 3% in recent times. The literacy rates in India have risen substantially since independence, from 18% in 1951 to 85% in 2018. Literacy is considered essential for citizens to perform their duties and enjoy their rights effectively.
However, disparities in literacy persist. Literacy rates are higher among males than females and higher in urban areas compared to rural areas. Kerala has the highest literacy rate among states, while Bihar has the lowest (as per 2011 Census).
Efforts like the **Sarva Siksha Abhiyan** aim to achieve universal elementary education for children aged 6-14 years, with initiatives like bridge courses and back-to-school camps to boost enrolment. The **Mid-day Meal Scheme** has been implemented to encourage school attendance, retention, and improve children's nutritional status.
In higher education, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for the 18-23 age group was 27% in 2019-20. There has been significant growth in the number of universities and colleges since 1951, along with increased student enrolment and recruitment of teachers. The focus in higher education is on increasing access, quality, adopting relevant curricula, vocationalisation, and using technology.
Picture 2.4 shows school children, representing the investment in education as a key aspect of human capital formation for the future growth and development of the country.
Graph 2.1 depicts the trends in literacy rates in India since independence, showing a general increase over the years. It also typically illustrates the gap in literacy rates between males and females and potentially between urban and rural areas, highlighting disparities.
Answer:
Based on Graph 2.1 (assuming a typical representation):
1. Yes, the literacy rates of the population have significantly increased since 1951.
2. To answer this precisely, you would need to read the specific data points or the year with the highest bar/point on the graph, likely the most recent year shown (e.g., 2018 or 2020-21 estimates).
3. Literacy rate is generally higher among males in India due to historical socio-cultural factors that favored male education, traditional gender roles, and potential disparities in access to schooling and opportunities for girls.
4. Women are less educated than men primarily due to persistent societal biases, patriarchal structures, early marriage, safety concerns, lack of accessible schools, and the expectation that girls prioritize domestic work over formal education in many families.
5. Literacy rate in India is calculated as the percentage of the population aged 7 years and above who can both read and write with understanding in any language.
6. Projecting India's literacy rate in 2025 would involve looking at the trend shown in the graph and estimating based on the rate of increase in recent years. Assuming the trend continues, it would likely be higher than the last data point shown, perhaps around 80-85% or higher depending on the graph's scale and period.
Format 1 (Vertical)
| Year | Number of Colleges | Number of Universities | Students Enrolled | Teachers in Universities & Colleges |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1950– 51 | 750 | 30 | 2,63,000 | 24,000 |
| 1990– 91 | 7,346 | 177 | 49,25,000 | 2,72,000 |
| 1998– 99 | 11,089 | 238 | 74,17,000 | 3,42,000 |
| 2010–11 | 33,023 | 523 | 186,70,050 | 8,16,966 |
| 2012–13 | 37,204 | 628 | 223,02,938 | 9,25,396 |
| 2014–15 | 40,760 | 711 | 265,85,437 | 12,61,350 |
| 2015–16 | 41,435 | 753 | 284,84,741 | 14,38,000 |
| 2016–17 | 42,338 | 795 | 294,27,158* | 14,70,190* |
| 2017–18 | 41,012 | 851 | 366,42,378 | 12,84,957 |
| 2018–19 | 39,931 | 993 | 37,399,388 | 14,16,299 |
| 2019–20 | 44,374 | 1,236 | 38,275,207 | 12,07,204 |
| 2020-21 | 46,007 | 1,074 (as on 2023) | 39,434,256* | 1,482,890 |
* Provisional Data / Enrolment estimated simple average increase. Source: UGC Annual Report / AISHE / Selected Educational Statistics.
Health
A person's **health** is crucial for them to realise their full potential and ability to perform effectively. Good health allows individuals to fight illness and contribute maximally to the growth of their organisation and the overall economy. Health is considered an essential basis for personal well-being.
Therefore, improving the **health status of the population** has been a priority for the country. National health policies aim to enhance the **accessibility of healthcare, family welfare, and nutritional services**, with a special focus on underprivileged segments of society.
Over the past five decades, India has significantly expanded its **health infrastructure** (including Sub-centres, PHCs, CHCs, dispensaries, and hospitals) and developed the necessary medical manpower (doctors, nurses, nursing personnel) across government and private sectors.
Picture 2.5 shows children queuing for a health check-up, representing investment in healthcare as a component of human capital formation, ensuring the health and well-being of the population, particularly the young.
These health measures have led to improvements in key health indicators:
- **Life Expectancy:** Increased to over 67.2 years in 2021.
- **Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):** Decreased significantly from 147 in 1951 to 28 in 2020 (IMR is death of child below one year).
- **Crude Birth Rate:** Dropped to 20.0 in 2020.
- **Death Rate:** Decreased to 6 in 2020.
Increased life expectancy and improved childcare (leading to reduced infant mortality) are indicators of the country's progress and future potential. Greater longevity suggests a better quality of life and increased self-confidence. Reduction in infant mortality reflects better protection from infection, improved nutrition for mothers and children, and better childcare practices.
While India has expanded its health infrastructure, there are concerns about the adequacy of facilities and manpower, particularly in rural areas and access to specialised care. There are a limited number of medical and dental colleges, with a high concentration in certain states.
Format 1 (Vertical)
| Year | SC/PHC/CHC | Dispensaries and Hospitals (under Ayush Management) | Beds (Govt.) | Doctor Registered with the State Medical Council of India | Nursing Personnel (ANM+RN& RM+LHV) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2014 | 182,709 | 29,715 | 675,779 | 41,070 | 2,621,981 |
| 2015 | 184,359 | 29,957 | 754,724 | 43,929 | 2,639,229 |
| 2016 | 185,933 | 30,044 | 6,34,879 | 48,076 | 2,778,248 |
| 2017 | 187,505 | 31,641 | 710,761 | 48,747 | 2,878,182 |
| 2018 | 189,784 | 31,733 | 713,986 | 56,417 | 2,966,375 |
| 2019 | 1,78,548 | 31,986 | 818,396 | 63,809 | 1,201,393 |
| 2021 | 1,94,349 | 36,068 | 849,206 | – | 3,514,373 (2020) |
Source: National Health Profile, Central Bureau of Health Intelligence, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Answer:
Based on Table 2.2:
1. Percentage increase in dispensaries from 1951 to 2020 cannot be calculated from this table as the data starts from 2014.
2. Percentage increase in doctors (registered with State Medical Councils) from 2014 (41,070) to 2019 (63,809) is approximately: $((63,809 - 41,070) / 41,070) * 100 \approx (22,739 / 41,070) * 100 \approx 55.37\%$. Percentage increase in nursing personnel from 2014 (2,621,981) to 2021 (3,514,373) is approximately: $((3,514,373 - 2,621,981) / 2,621,981) * 100 \approx (892,392 / 2,621,981) * 100 \approx 34.03\%$. (Note: Using 2020 data for nursing personnel in 2021 column and lack of 1951 data limits precise calculation).
3. Whether the increase in doctors and nurses is adequate for India depends on population growth and healthcare needs. While there has been an increase, India still faces significant shortages of healthcare professionals, particularly in rural areas. So, the increase might not be adequate relative to the population's needs.
4. In a hospital, other facilities would include diagnostic services (labs, imaging), specialised treatment units (ICUs, operation theatres), pharmacies, emergency services, counselling services, and clean and hygienic environments.
5. Discussion about a visited hospital would involve describing its type (government/private), size, facilities, cleanliness, number of staff, and the perceived quality of care.
6. Drawing a graph using this table would involve plotting each health infrastructure category on the y-axis against the year on the x-axis to visualise trends in their growth.
Unemployment
**Unemployment** exists when individuals who are **willing to work at the prevailing wages cannot find jobs**. Sakal's mother Sheela, his siblings Jeetu and Seetu, and his grandparents cannot be considered unemployed in the statistical sense. Sheela is a housewife not seeking paid work outside the home. Jeetu and Seetu are too young to be part of the workforce (workforce population is typically aged 15-59 years). Grandparents are also outside the working age group.
Unemployment in India manifests differently in rural and urban areas:
- **Rural Unemployment:** Characterised by **seasonal unemployment** and **disguised unemployment**.
- **Urban Unemployment:** Primarily involves **educated unemployment**.
**Seasonal unemployment** occurs when people cannot find work during certain months of the year, common in agriculture which has busy seasons (sowing, harvesting, etc.) and months with little activity.
**Disguised unemployment** occurs when people appear to be employed, often on family farms, but their contribution is effectively zero. For instance, if a task requires five workers but eight family members are engaged, the three extra members are considered disguised unemployed because removing them would not reduce the total output. The entire family shares the work and produce, which alleviates the hardship of unemployment but doesn't reduce the family's poverty.
**Educated unemployment** is a significant problem in urban areas, where many young people with matriculation, graduate, and postgraduate degrees are unable to find suitable jobs. Studies indicate this is increasing, creating a paradox where there is a surplus of educated individuals in certain fields alongside a shortage of technically skilled manpower needed for economic growth.
Unemployment represents a **wastage of human resources**. People who could be assets become liabilities. It leads to feelings of hopelessness and despair among the youth, causes economic hardship for families, and increases the economic burden on the working population. It negatively impacts the quality of life for individuals and society, potentially leading to health decline and school dropouts. High unemployment indicates a depressed economy and unused potential. When people are not utilised as resources, they become a liability to the economy.
Statistically, India's unemployment rate might appear low, but this can be misleading. A large number of people counted as 'employed' work in low-income, low-productivity jobs, often out of necessity rather than choice. Poor people cannot afford to remain idle and engage in any available activity, even if it provides only bare subsistence earnings.
The employment structure in India is dominated by **self-employment in the primary sector (agriculture)**. Disguised unemployment is prevalent here. While sharing work and produce alleviates individual hardship, it does not lift families out of poverty. Surplus labour from agriculture often migrates to urban areas in search of jobs.
Recently, there has been a shift in labour from agriculture towards the **secondary (manufacturing)** and **tertiary (services)** sectors. Small-scale manufacturing is a significant labour absorber in the secondary sector. The tertiary sector is seeing the emergence of new services in areas like biotechnology and information technology, potentially creating new job opportunities.
Picture 2.6 shows a cobbler mending shoes. This represents a service activity (Tertiary sector), often part of the unorganised sector, providing a livelihood through skilled manual work.
Story Of A Village
The story of a village where initially all families were self-sufficient but engaged in subsistence activities (producing own food, clothes, educating children at home) illustrates how investment in human capital can transform an economy.
One family sent a son to agriculture college. He returned as a qualified **agro-engineer** and designed an improved plough that increased wheat yield. This created a new skilled job and led to surplus production that could be sold in a neighbouring village market, generating profit. Inspired by this success, other families requested a school. With government help, a school was opened, increasing the literacy rate of the village children.
Another family trained a daughter in **tailoring**. This created another new job as villagers wanted well-tailored clothes. This saved farmers time previously spent travelling for clothes, allowing them to spend more time farming, further increasing yields. The village began producing more than it consumed, selling surplus goods in local markets.
Over time, this simple village, initially lacking job opportunities, developed various new roles (teacher, tailor, agro-engineer, etc.). This transformation shows how increasing the level of human capital through education and skill development enabled the village economy to evolve, becoming richer and engaging in more complex activities. The rising level of human capital was the driving force behind this economic development.
**Summary:**
The chapter highlights how investment in education and health transforms people into an economic asset. It describes economic activities within the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors and discusses unemployment. It concludes with the story of a village illustrating how human capital development leads to economic growth and new job opportunities.
**Capital:** In the context of factors of production, **Human Capital** is arguably the best. While land, labour, and physical capital are essential, it is human capital (knowledge, skills, enterprise) that combines and effectively utilizes all other resources to create value and drive development. Without human capital, land and physical capital remain unproductive.